Abstract

This work examines the role and significance of the VENDOR multi-discharge pulse-resonance system within the historical and technological evolution of electrostatic generators. Although the VENDOR system employs several electrostatic effects, its architecture belongs to hybrid pulse-resonance systems that extend beyond the classical definition of an electrostatic generator. The analysis covers architectural principles from classical systems (Wimshurst machine, Van de Graaff generator) to modern dielectric converters and high-voltage pulse-resonance platforms. The study demonstrates that the VENDOR architecture represents a qualitatively distinct solution compared to classical electrostatic systems, providing enhanced energy-conversion efficiency through a parallel multichannel structure with independent resonance circuits.

Keywords: electrostatic generators, pulse-resonance systems, high-frequency electronics, resonance circuits, spectral control, multi-discharge architecture.

1. Introduction

Electrostatic and electromechanical generators hold a distinct place in the history of electrical engineering, representing a fundamental class of devices for converting various forms of energy into electricity through the accumulation and controlled discharge of electric fields. Over more than three centuries, the development of this class of systems has been characterized by a continuous pursuit of higher energy efficiency, improved stability, and expanded application domains.

The modern stage of electrostatic technology development is marked by a transition from mechanical–inductive principles to electronically controlled hybrid systems that employ resonance phenomena in electromagnetic circuits. In this context, the VENDOR multi-discharge pulse-resonance system (based on patent WO2024209235) represents a critical innovation that synthesizes classical electrostatic principles with contemporary theory of high-frequency electronic systems.

The VENDOR system fully complies with the laws of thermodynamics and does not violate energy balance. A detailed analysis of its thermodynamic consistency is provided in Section 8.3.

2. Historical Paradigm: From Mechanical to Electronic Systems

2.1 Transitional Period: The Wimshurst Machine (1883–1884)

James Wimshurst, a British amateur engineer, introduced significant architectural improvements to electrostatic systems by developing the influence machine (the Wimshurst machine). His invention preceded the later work of Van de Graaff and presented a fundamentally new approach to generating high voltages.

Key innovations:

• Instead of a single rotating disk, two disks are used, rotating in opposite directions at identical angular velocities
• Alternating charging via brush–collector assemblies based on electrostatic induction
• Synergistic effect: a positive charge on one disk induces a negative charge on the other, and vice versa

Advantages of the multi-disk architecture:

The architecture of the Wimshurst machine enabled a significant increase in output voltage without proportionally increasing system size. Large laboratory units typically achieved potentials around 50–60 kV while remaining compact. A fundamental advantage was inherent stabilization: excess charges were automatically redistributed between the two disks, minimizing the need for external regulators.

Historically, the Wimshurst machine predates the Van de Graaff generator and represents an important architectural predecessor to the multichannel systems of the following century.

2.2 Classical Period: The Van de Graaff Generator (1929–1931)

The revolutionary invention of American physicist Robert Van de Graaff laid the groundwork for the powerful electrostatic systems of the 20th century. Its operating principle relied on the mechanical transport of electric charge by a moving dielectric belt. Van de Graaff’s first publication on this topic appeared in 1931 and described a device generating 1.5 million volts.

Architectural features:

• A dielectric belt (silk or rubber) rotating between two rollers
• The upper roller made of dielectric material, the lower one metallic and grounded
• Two brush electrodes: the upper connected to the metal sphere, the lower to an ionizing voltage source
• Ionization of air produces positive ions that are deposited onto the moving belt

Operational efficiency:

Early laboratory units produced tens to hundreds of kilovolts. However, by 1931 Van de Graaff had already described a 1.5-million-volt device, and by 1933 systems achieving up to 7 million volts had been built.

Limitations of the classical architecture:

The fundamental limitation of the system was that the achievable high voltage was restricted by corona discharge caused by air ionization around the accumulator sphere. The electric field strength that triggers corona at normal atmospheric pressure is approximately 30 kV/cm, forming a physical ceiling for voltage. Additionally, mechanical wear of the belt and rollers required periodic maintenance.

3. Contemporary Period: Electrostatic Converters and Dielectric Generators

3.1 Capacitive Electrostatic Generators

Modern electrostatic converters operate on the principle of modulating the capacitance of a charged capacitor. The primary mechanism is based on mechanical forces performing work against the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged plates.

Two-capacitor systems:

In a two-capacitor generator, one group of capacitances decreases during oscillation while the other increases. This causes charge to flow through the load resistance without requiring electronic switches to transfer energy.

Conversion efficiency:

The maximum mechanical-to-electrical energy conversion efficiency reaches 70–85%, depending on the depth of capacitance modulation and the load parameters.

3.2 Microelectronic Electrostatic Generators

Advances in microelectronic technologies have enabled the creation of electrostatic generators with micrometer-scale plate displacements. Such systems exhibit the following characteristics:

• Low threshold of mechanical excitation (generation possible even with micrometer-scale displacements)
• Specific power reported in some studies ranges from several microwatts to milliwatts depending on oscillation frequency and amplitude; energy-density estimates require careful interpretation based on material assumptions and operating regimes
• Simple control (only a voltage source is required)
• Ability to combine multiple units in parallel on a common load

4. High-Voltage Pulse-Resonance Systems: Theoretical Transition Toward VENDOR

4.1 Pulse Discharge Systems

High-voltage pulse-resonance systems represent an intermediate class between classical electrostatic generators and stored-energy control systems. Their core operating principle lies in accumulating energy in capacitive elements followed by controlled discharge through low-impedance channels.

4.2 Resonant Circuits in High-Frequency Electronics

The functional transition toward multichannel systems requires understanding the role of resonant circuits. LC resonant networks enable:

• Maximum energy transfer at a specific frequency
• Minimization of transient losses
• Selective amplification of particular spectral components
• Stabilization of system operation under parameter variations

5. VENDOR: Architecture of the Multi-Discharge Pulse-Resonance System

5.1 Structural System Components

The VENDOR generator employs a multichannel architecture that fundamentally differs from all prior electrostatic and resonance-based systems. The system comprises three or more parallel discharge channels, each including:

Channel components:

• An independent energy-storage capacitor (capacitors 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, etc., as referenced in the patent)
• A dedicated resonance circuit for frequency-tuning optimization
• An independent rectification block for isolated energy extraction
• Controlled discharge gaps with individual firing thresholds

5.2 Multi-Discharge Parallel Architecture

The fundamental difference between VENDOR and classical systems is its use of a parallel rather than a sequential topology:

Functional advantages of the parallel architecture:

• Channel independence: Each channel operates autonomously, without crosstalk or mutual interference, preventing undesirable coupling between discharge events.
• Modular power scaling: The system can scale from a few watts to tens of kilowatts by adding new parallel modules without compromising stability.
• Spectral distribution: Unlike classical systems with a single operating frequency, VENDOR employs a distributed spectrum where different discharge gaps have distinct ignition thresholds (e.g., 2.0 kV, 2.5 kV, 3.1 kV).

5.3 Spectral Overlap and Frequency Ranges

The different discharge gaps exhibit distinct firing thresholds, leading to overlapping operating frequencies in the range of several kilohertz. Establishing this stable composite spectral platform is critically important:

Spectral synergy:

• The channels operate in the kilohertz range with overlapping frequency spectra
• Overlap of frequency ranges produces a multifrequency stochastic-resonance effect, reducing system sensitivity to drift of individual modes
• Such overlap provides high robustness against frequency drift caused by thermal stress or component aging
• If one channel degrades or drifts, adjacent channels maintain resonant coverage through spectral overlap

5.4 Mechanism of Self-Compensation for Parametric Drift

A unique feature of the VENDOR architecture is its built-in self-compensation mechanism:

Operating principle:

As electrodes or other components of a discharge gap age, their characteristics change (for example, the ignition threshold may shift from 2.5 kV to 2.7 kV). However, due to the overlapping spectral ranges of neighboring channels, the system maintains resonance and functionality without external feedback or retuning.

6. Performance Characteristics and Efficiency

6.1 Performance Enhancement Parameters in Channel Scaling

Experimental data from the VENDOR system demonstrate substantial improvements in operational parameters as the number of discharge gaps increases:

When the number of discharge gaps increases from 2 to 6:

Reduction of current rise time:

• From the microsecond range to sub-microsecond values (<500 ns)
• Physical meaning: a faster pulse front improves energy transfer efficiency and reduces switching losses

Increase in energy efficiency:

• Increase in conversion efficiency from 87% to 92%
• Important clarification: the 87–92% efficiency refers to the conversion of stored energy within the discharge channels and does not imply the absence of energy losses in the starter or control sections of the system. It reflects the efficiency of energy transformation during discharge processes assuming the presence of an initiating energy source.
• Primary cause: more uniform distribution of electrical load among channels and reduced peak voltages on individual discharge gaps

Spectral characteristics:

• Increase in spectral discharge density
• Reduction of jitter (random fluctuations) in pulse firing times

6.2 Reliability and Longevity

VENDOR demonstrates significant advantages over classical systems:

Factors contributing to increased reliability:

• No moving parts (unlike the Van de Graaff generator with its belt and rollers)
• No chemically degrading components (unlike battery-based systems)
• Minimal maintenance requirements
• Built-in redundancy through multichannel architecture

7. Comparative Analysis of Electrostatic and Resonant System Generations

7.1 Evolutionary Line of Technological Solutions

8. Theoretical Justification of VENDOR Advantages

8.1 Spectral Theory of Resonant Systems

Within the framework of spectral theory, VENDOR can be regarded as a multi-resonant system in which each channel represents a distinct resonant mode.

Mathematical representation:

The system can be described as a set of parallel-connected LC circuits, each with its own natural frequency:

\[ f_n = \frac{1}{2\pi\sqrt{L_n C_n}} \]

where the index \(n\) corresponds to each discharge channel (\(n = 1, 2, 3, \ldots\)).

The overlap of spectral bands provides the condition:

\[ \Delta f_{n-1,n} > 0 \]

which guarantees continuity of spectral coverage despite parametric drift in individual channels.

8.2 Reliability Theory via Redundancy

From the standpoint of reliability theory, the multichannel architecture constitutes a system with partial functional redundancy. The overall reliability of such a system can be expressed as:

\[ R_{\text{total}} = 1 – \prod_{i=1}^{n} (1 – R_i) \]

where \(R_i\) is the reliability of the \(i\)-th channel.

For a system with 6 channels, each with reliability 0.95, the total reliability is:

\[ R_{\text{total}} = 1 – (1 – 0.95)^6 \approx 0.99999998 \]

i.e. approximately 99.999998%.

8.3 Compliance with the Laws of Thermodynamics

The VENDOR system fully complies with the laws of thermodynamics and does not violate energy balance. The discharge processes act as a mechanism for energy redistribution in an open system.

First law (energy conservation): Energy in the discharge channels originates from an initiating source (the DC starter pulse) and is distributed between useful work (output discharge) and losses (heat, electromagnetic radiation).

Second law (entropy): Each discharge cycle is accompanied by an increase in system entropy. An efficiency of 87–92% means that 87–92% of the source energy is converted into useful discharge, while the remainder is dissipated as heat and other losses.

No perpetual motion: The system requires continuous initiating input (a starter power source) and cannot operate indefinitely without external energy supply.

9. Limitations and Applicability Boundaries

9.1 Operational limitations

Understanding the limitations of the VENDOR system is essential for its correct application and for setting realistic expectations.

Dependence on the quality of the start pulse:

• The system requires a stable and clean initial power pulse for initialization
• Unstable or noisy start signals degrade synchronization between channels
• The initialization block must be carefully designed

Inter-gap distance requirements:

• Distances between discharge gaps must be precisely calculated to avoid parasitic discharges between channels
• Violating geometric parameters critically reduces performance
• Fabrication tolerances are stricter than in classical electrostatic systems

Environmental limitations:

• Humidity: corona and discharge processes depend critically on air humidity
• Pressure: the system operates optimally at normal atmospheric pressure; operation in low-pressure environments (altitude) requires reconfiguration
• Temperature: thermal variations affect LC characteristics and firing thresholds

Influence of thermal load on LC circuits:

• Capacitors and inductors have temperature coefficients that shift resonant frequencies
• Prolonged high-power operation requires active heat dissipation
• Frequency drift due to heating is compensated by spectral overlap but within defined limits

9.2 Scalability and practical limitations

Modular expansion has limits:

• Each added channel increases synchronization complexity
• Beyond a certain number of channels (configurations of 8–10 studied), nonlinear interaction effects appear
• The optimal number of channels for different power levels requires dedicated calculation

Dependence on component quality:

• The system is sensitive to parameter spread of components
• Using high-stability, precision components significantly increases system cost
• Components with wide tolerances cannot be used

10. Patent Protection, Reproducibility, and Scientific Openness

VENDOR is protected by the international patent WO2024209235, which provides detailed disclosure of all system components, including:

• The multichannel parallel system architecture
• The configuration of resonant LC circuits
• Discharge gap parameters and ignition thresholds
• Control and synchronization algorithms between channels
• Spectral analysis and optimization methods

Reproducibility under laboratory conditions:

The patent describes the system structure such that reproduction is possible under laboratory conditions with appropriate equipment and precision components. However, without disclosure of the critical know-how protected as a trade secret, full commercial reproduction requires a licensing agreement.

The openness of the project at the level of architecture and principles enables the scientific community to perform independent evaluation and verification of the main declared characteristics while preserving commercial protection of key technological details.

11. Future Applications of VENDOR

11.1 Autonomous Power Supply Systems

VENDOR is particularly suitable for applications requiring long-term autonomy:

• IoT devices (environmental sensors, remote monitoring, portable systems)
• Local distributed electricity supply in remote regions without centralized grid access
• Critical systems (backup power for medical equipment, security systems, navigation systems)
• Hybrid energy systems combining VENDOR with solar or wind generation

11.2 Applicability boundaries and scaling constraints

Important clarification: VENDOR is not intended to replace centralized power stations (hydro, thermal, nuclear), but is optimized for distributed, autonomous, and hybrid power systems. It is particularly effective in:

• Local microgrids (5–500 kW)
• Autonomous facilities with predictable energy consumption
• Systems requiring high reliability and minimal maintenance
• Applications where traditional generators are inefficient due to sporadic or predictable loads

Power scales modularly but depends on thermal management and component quality. Systems in the range of 10–100 kW are considered achievable with the current technological level.

11.3 Economic advantages

Key economic factors enabling VENDOR’s competitiveness in specific market niches include:

• Minimal “fuel” cost: after initialization, the system requires only start pulses, equivalent to minimal control energy consumption
• Low operational costs: no moving parts, no chemically degrading components → minimal maintenance
• Long projected lifespan: superior to diesel generators (require regular service) and battery systems (limited cycle life)
• Reduced dependency on global supply chains: local manufacturing is possible with basic electronic components and precision fabrication capability

12. Discussion and Analysis of Paradigmatic Shifts

12.1 From Mechanics to Electronics

The historical evolution of electrostatic generators reflects a fundamental shift in engineering — from mechanical mechanisms (belts, disks, brushes) to electronically controlled systems. VENDOR fully embraces this paradigm, replacing mechanical transformations with electronic switching and spectral control.

12.2 From Single Frequency to Spectral Polymorphism

Classical systems (Van de Graaff, Wimshurst) operated at a single or very narrow frequency. VENDOR introduces a fundamentally new concept — spectral polymorphism, where different parts of the system operate at different but overlapping frequencies, resembling self-organizing natural systems.

12.3 From Monolithic to Modular

Earlier systems were monolithic, meaning expanding capabilities required complete redesign. VENDOR demonstrates true modularity — adding channels does not disrupt existing ones, provided synchronization and thermal design are correct.

13. Conclusion

The VENDOR generator represents a fundamentally new solution in the development of hybrid impulse-resonance energy conversion systems, synthesizing a century of evolution from Wimshurst and Van de Graaff mechanisms to modern high-frequency electronic architectures.

Main achievements of VENDOR:

• Enhanced conversion efficiency: 87–92% efficiency in discharge channels exceeds many previous systems, assuming an initiating energy source.
• Built-in reliability: Multichannel architecture with spectral overlap ensures self-compensation of parameter drift and extremely high total reliability (up to 99.999998%).
• True modularity: Scales from watts to tens of kilowatts without loss of stability when properly designed.
• Full compliance with fundamental physics: Fully consistent with thermodynamics and energy balance; no violation of conservation principles.
• Scientific grounding and openness: Patent protection with architectural disclosure enables independent laboratory verification.

Applicability boundaries:

• Distributed local networks (5–500 kW)
• Autonomous facilities with predictable consumption
• Critical systems requiring extremely high reliability
• Hybrid energy architectures

Future development directions:

• Integrating VENDOR with machine learning for real-time predictive spectral optimization
• Investigating scaling to 100+ kW with adequate thermal management
• Experimental verification of durability and reliability in extreme environments
• Developing standardized interfaces and protocols for IoT and critical applications
• Evaluating economic feasibility in specific application scenarios

Bibliographic References

• Van de Graaff, R. J. (1931). A 1,500,000 Volt Electrostatic Generator. Physical Review, 38, 1919–1920. https://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/myvdg.html
• Wimshurst, J. (1883–1884). Influence Machine patent series. British Patent Office. Descriptive and background material is available, for example, at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wimshurst_machine
• Watson, W. (1746). Experiments and observations tending to illustrate the nature and properties of electricity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. The original article can be accessed via the Philosophical Transactions archives for the year 1746.
• Кулаев, Ю. Ф., & Гордеев, Л. С. (2001). Микроэлектронные высокоэнергоемкие генераторы электрической энергии. Izvestiya RAN. Seriya fizicheskaya, 65(12), 1742–1748. The paper is available in the archive of the journal “Izvestiya RAN. Seriya fizicheskaya”.
• VENDOR.energy (2024). Multi-Discharge Energy Generator: Architecture and Patent Disclosure WO2024209235. International patent WO2024209235: https://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2024209235